Co-operative entreprises Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Co-operative entreprises - Essay Example Different Expectations One of the common and the most disastrous problems of working in a co-operative is that different members may come together in the team having different expectations. I will present here the simple example of doing an assignment together. Some group members may be satisfied with nothing but an A whereas others may settle with just a passing grade. Different expectations can lead to different attitude, work ethics and priorities (Barton, 2011). Thus it is very important in a co-operative to have a common goal and shared values. Each member should identify with that goal. It may even be necessary to scale down the expectations of some of the members and scale up the expectations of others in order to arrive at a goal which is expectable to all the members. Lack of Communication A co-operative is formed when one member cannot fulfil all the roles himself. Thus a co-operative entails division of work. Some members may be made in charge of marketing, others will hav e to handle the finance and some others are tasked to handle operations of the co-operative. The biggest challenge here is the lack of communication among members responsible for different tasks. A marketing guy may make a very ambitious sales plan but may not be aware that there are no finances to support his plan. Lack of communication causes numerous problems but is relatively easy to handle. The problem can be handled b having regular meetings with different group members (Nilsson & Ollila, 2013). These meetings might seem like a drag but they help everyone to come up to speed and also remain misunderstanding that may crop up. Regular communications among different teams is the most important means of solving problems in a co-operative working environment and ensure positive interdependence among the team members. Ego/Personality clashes In my personal experience of working on a co-operative project ego clash is the biggest challenge which is very difficult to solve. The operati onal and logistic problems can be solved easily if all team members put their minds to it but ego clashes not only demoralize other team members but may even ruin the whole project (Cooperatives UK, 1965). These clashes may not be even related to the project that we are undertaking but members may have brought them in to the team from their past history. The best way to avoid these clashes is to ensure that each member of the co-operative is allowed to speak his or her mind. No one should be given more weight age as compared to others. However this does not usually happens and team members end up taking sides which is disastrous for the co-operative. I have personally seen that secret voting on topics of contention is a good way to prevent these clashes and help the group move forward. Cultural Differences Each one of us has a different way of working even if we have the same goals. Some members of the group like to work alone, some like to work under pressure whereas others like to plan ahead. I call these problems as cultural differences among the members of the team. These differences

Case study analysis Nike sweatshops and business ehtics

Analysis Nike sweatshops and business ehtics - Case Study Example The sells a number of their products per year but the company lacks a production unit and thus contracts other companies to manufacture for them all around the world. It is estimated that over 900,000 million people are employed in these different companies around the world to produce Nike based products alone. A large number of these companies are based in Asian countries like Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan and Indonesia where critics have accused Nike to offer poor working condition for the workers as opposed to the United States’ labor laws. The company has been accused on several occasions for exploiting the sweatshop labors upon which its operations are based to increase their profitability while exploiting the locals and rewarding them poorly. Nike had total revenue of $16 billion in 2007, a slight improvement from what the company posted in the previous years. Introduction This paper provides a detailed case study of Nike sweat shops as they are curren tly operated and managed across the globe. As part of the analysis, the business model adopted by Nike shall be analyzed in this paper, providing a comparison with other business models that do exist. The core mission, values and visions of the company will also be discussed to ascertain their relevance in the progress of the company. This paper will adopt the five porter analysis technique to describe the strategic plans and approaches adopted by Nike sweatshops. Porter five force analyses is a framework developed to enable consultants conduct critical industry analysis and business strategy development. SWOT analysis of the company will also be conducted to help form a clear basis upon which their success and/or failure will be weighed. Ethical issues in Nike sweatshops have been a major topic both in the United States and in other countries where the company’s goods are manufactured. This case study will also seek to provide a detailed analysis of the ethical conduct and m isconduct of Nike sweatshop to ascertain the relevance of the claims. Finally, recommendations based on the results obtained from the analysis will be provided emphasizing on the legal requirements that guide such recommendations. Existing business model Business model provides an in-depth analysis of the practices of the business that seeks to create, deliver and capture value for the products being handled. In this section, the core operational aspects of the business, strategies employed organizational culture and structure and trading policies will be evaluated. The business model adopted by any organization contributed to a larger percentage its ability to succeed and deliver value to its consumers. Nike has a value proposition that translates into nothing is impossible if you put the right effort and practice into whatever you want to achieve. This has been a marketing strategy adopted by the company for long to enable it retain its sport consumers who require motivation in th eir daily endeavors. The creation of innovation and inspiration to all athletes in the world the company’s core target and this has enabled Nike to maintain its traditional customers in the sporting fraternity (Drago 117). Nike has for long adopted the franchising business model to enable it produce large volumes of products that can meet the demands of its large consumers spread across the world. Franchising is defined as a practice of using other

Italian Unification between 1815-1848 Essay Example for Free

Italian Unification between 1815-1848 Essay To what extent is it true to say that there was absolutely no movement or prospect of Italian Unification between 1815-1848? Between the years 1818 and 1848 there were many revolutions in Italy starting in the year 1821. The statement above states ‘absolutely no movement or prospect,’ therefore I strongly disagree with this due to the fact that there must have been some movement to achieve what Italy were finally able to. The following essay will give different points on the statement. In my opinion, I do not agree with the statement, one main reason being there were enough people in Italy that wanted it to be unified and that fought for what they believed in. For example the secret societies. During the times Italy was under the ruling of Metternich, many secret societies were formed, with passwords, mutual protection and sometimes even semi-religious rituals. The Carbonari, the most well known society and so consequently the most important. There were approximately 60,000 members involved, and it was particularly active in South Italy, especially in Naples. There aims were relatively mild, in Piedmont and Naples for example they hoped to establish a constitutional monarchy. It is already possible to see that there was some movement in Italy from secret societies that were hoping for Italian Unification. Another reason I disagree with the statement is due to Italy being under the ruling of Metternich. Although it was difficult living under the Austrians, and they were clearly putting an obstacle in the way of unification, I believe that it was actually a large contribution to the happening of unification. For example, due to Metternich trying to belittle the country by separating it into small constituencies, it made the Italian public want to fight back, and therefore as a consequence start revolutions. Three major revolutions occurred in Italy in the years, 1820-21, 1831-32, 1848-49. I believe this proves that things were being done to help unification rather than there being ‘absolutely no movement’. Additionally there is Giuseppe Mazzini, who is said to be a key figure in the history of Italian Unification. Mazzini was born in 1805, he had one overriding aim being ‘the brotherhood of people’. He believed in the equality of human beings and of races. In 1831, Mazzini founded ‘Young Italy’, this being Italy’s first real political party. Mazzini described the party as, ‘a brotherhood of Italians who believe in a law offreemen and equals.’ Those in the party had to swear to commit themselves to make Italy ‘one free, independent, republican nation.’ Mazzini’s ideas were incredibly radical for that period of time, for example, his ideal was that the people should rise up agains their oppressors, there should be unification ‘from below.’ Eventually there was unification however it came more from above. Yet Mazzini proves once again that there was movement and prospect towards Italian unification, Young Italy being another example. Although Mazzini may not have been successful at that precise moment, we can now see that unification was actually reached. Linking to my previous point, it has been proven that Mazzini was not only famous for his radical beliefs but also for converting people to the cause. This point firstly proves that some movement was being made in the form of attracting people to the challenge that was Italian unification, but furthermore, proves further movement in the fact that there must have been an incredible number of supporters that were in favour of unification, and therefore plans must have been made to try and succeed. Finally, by seeing that Italian Unification was attained eventually, we can ultimately say that there must have been enough movement and enough prospect for the aim to be successful. For these reasons, i disagree with the statement ‘To what extent is it true to say that there was absolutely no movement or prospect of Italian Unification between 1815-1848?’ On the other hand, there are many events from this period of time that may agree with the statement previously specified. For example, after the French revolution, Metternich reinstated the previous monarchs of each constituency. Most of the monarchs were reactionary and therefore there was a large obstacle blocking the path to unification. Being such a large predicament, one can assume that there was ‘absolutely no movement.’ In addition, the lack of progress that went into uniting the country through language may have been seen as lacking and therefore lead ones opinions to believe once again no progress was being made. Furthermore, even with the countless revolutions that were attempted not one succeeded permanently. So, although this particular example goes against there being absolutely no movement, due to the fact there was clearly movement in the form of revolutions, it does agree however with there being no prospect of unification, seeing as every individual revolution from each specific country failed inevitably. This was in consequence of the Austrians suppressing the revolutions and then re inviting the previous leaders to come and transform the constituence to the way it had previously been. Following this, it is now possible to appreciate the separation between the North and South of Italy. The Northern half containing the wealthier half of the population, whilst the Southern half being populated with the poorer families. Due to this large partition, it is hard to see any prospect in Italian Unification and therefore one can easily agree with the statement above. In relation to the previous point is the division of the Apennine Mountains. In those times, the Apennine Mountains were practically the back bone of Italy, until it was partitioned into North-East and South-West by Metternich. It is understood that without a back bone, a body would be unable to stand, hence the fact that without the Apennine Mountains it would be incredibly challenging for the population of Italy to achieve the prospect of unification. Overall, one can see that there are many justifications for both sides of this argument. Although from this essay it seems the statement is in fact true, I strongly disagree. Understanding that there may be proof to support the statement, at the end of the day Italian Unification was achieved, and therefore it is impossible to say that there was ‘absolutely no movement’ because the aim was fulfilled and therefore some movement must have taken place. In conclusion, I disagree with the statement ‘to what extent is it true to say that there was absolutely no movement or prospect of Italian Unification between 1815-1848’ because this declaration clearly states that there was ‘absolutely no movement’ towards Italian Unification between those years, yet unification was completed, thus whether there was a lot of movement, or in some case a little, there was undoubtedly more than none, and for this reason I forcefully disagree with the statement.

Education Essays Special Education Need Pupils

Education Essays Special Education Need Pupils Do Individual Education plans help or hinder the full inclusion of special education need pupils in mainstream schools? Individual Education Plans (IEPs) are required under current DfES guidance for all special education needs (SEN) pupils in the UK. Nearly two million British pupils are estimated to have some sort of special education need, approximately seventeen per cent of all pupils (Russell 2003, DfES 2005). These special educational needs include a wide range of difficulties, such as a physical disability, a hearing or visual impairment, a serious medical condition of some type, and/or behavioural, emotional, communication, and/or social problems (DfES 2005). Government guidance since the publication of the Warnock Report in 1978 has more and more encouraged the inclusion of SEN pupils in mainstream schools, and all but three percent are taught there (Potts 1995, DfES 2005). This concept of inclusion is part of a broader human rights movement that views segregation in general as morally wrong (Avramidis et al 2000). From this standpoint, inclusion is not simply about making sure the SEN child is taught effectively. Rather, it is about the quality of his or her educational experience as a whole, how he or she is assisted in learning at full potential and full participation in the life of the school (DfES 2005). As such, the IEP system should contribute to the full inclusion and participation of SEN pupils in the schools they attend. However, whilst IEPs do provide some help for those with special education needs, they are not the most beneficial means to full inclusion in the mainstream schools. First, IEPs should allow everyone in a school to be informed of the existence and nature of a childs special education needs. This is particularly important if the need is not visually evident. For example, many children with learning disabilities may not be identified for several years of schooling. Often this will be blamed on some other condition, such as laziness on the part of the child or problems at home, until the education need is finally identified (Chuiang, Liao and Tai 2005). In this instance, the child is repeatedly placed in learning experiences where he is unable to succeed. The child then loses motivation and falls behind in development of basic skills in they are related to his disability. Students who fall behind and experience learning difficulties are often unable to participate fully in class and become disenfranchised with their school communities and in some cases with their peer in general (Jones 2004). IEPs allow the childs special education need to be communicated throughout his learning community, accommodations to be made, and the child to remain engaged with his peer group and academic work. IEPs also provide consistent guidance for everyone responsible for the childs learning. Prior to the use of IEPs, SEN children were often identified discovered anew each year, with teachers working through how to address childrens needs over and over again rather than information being passed on from the previous years teachers (Jones 2004). Similarly, not all staff in the school that interacted with a SEN child were aware of the childs situation, preventing his needs from being met (Jones 2004). Parents and children were also not as involved prior to the use of IEPs, in which they are now guaranteed input (Jones 2004). IEPs document both the childs specific needs and provide a means of involving many of the stakeholders in the childs educational experience. The IEP system, however, is not the best way to address special education needs. For one thing, the system isolates and provides services for pupils with one type of learning problems whilst not addressing the needs of pupils whose problems are more environmental. Issues such as health problems that interfere with school but are not a serious medical condition, poor attendance, speech and language difficulties, problems at home, and emotional or behavioural difficulties outside the SEN guidelines are not addressed by IEPs (Callias 2001). This not only can cause a delay in identification of SEN children, as other contributing factors are considered, but also makes no provision for pupils suffering from issues such as above which compromise their learning experience (Callias 2001). IEPs can therefore be viewed as a hindrance to full inclusion. As long as the IEP system is in place, there is less likelihood that government guidance or individual LEAs or schools will move to a whole-school strategy for all pupils (Lingard 2001). IEPs provide a framework for addressing the needs of SEN pupils, but do so on an individual basis for each pupil. If whole-school strategies were in place, IEPs could be much less detailed, or possibly eliminated (Lingard 2001). For example, the current system requires Special Educational Needs Coordinators (SENCOs) at each school to spend a great amount of time writing and administering IEPs, which nearly all report could be more effectively spent on direct pupil interaction (Lingard 2001). Most SENCOs felt the pupils and the school as a whole would benefit from a system where the planning and other work associated with IEPS was shared amongst all the teachers and staff responsible for the pupils learning (Lingard 2001). Where whole-scho ol policies and schemes of work are used effectively in order to differentiate the teaching of the subjects of the curriculum, there should be no need to duplicate targets in over-elaborate IEPs (Byers 2001, 159). The IEP system can be viewed, therefore, as a hindrance to full inclusion because it prevents schools from moving to a whole-school strategy for addressing SEN pupils learning needs. Within the current IEP system, there are three additional hindrances to full inclusion. A lack of input from all stakeholders in the forming of the IEP contributes to their ineffectiveness. Too often, the SENCO completes the entire IEP creation before input from parents and child are considered (Lindgard 2001). As this overworked educator rarely can gather all the pertinent information needed, IEPs are often lacking critical data. Even though government and educational authorities are required by the Children Act 2000 to consider the child holistically, many parents are unsure as to what information would be useful and therefore provide little input (Goldthorpe 2004). Similarly, many teachers view the IEP as the SENCOs responsibility and neglect to provide detailed data (Pearson 2000). This is sometimes compounded by lack of support by some teachers for inclusion of SEN pupils in mainstream schools (Pearson 2000). This lack of input from all stakeholders can lead to an IEP that is no t supported by those who actually interact with the child, and therefore limits their effectiveness in promoting full inclusion. In addition, IEPs are not effective in goal setting. Ofsted (1999) found that although schools now have IEPs in place, their effectiveness varies. For example, IEPs present long-term goals, typically a school term or year in duration. SEN children respond better to short-term goals, like to read a chapter of a book in two weeks. As IEPs stretch out measurement of progress to the next review, they consequently become less useful in practice and less meaningful for SEN children, who are often unable to conceptualise or recognise their attainment and progress (Lingard 2001). Behavioural goals, for instance, are more effective on many IEPs than learning goals, because the behavioural goals tend to be highly specific, allowing children to understand exactly what they need to do to achieve these goals (Lingard 2001). Finally and most importantly, IEPs hinder full inclusion because they concentrate on childrens deficiencies. The other children in school are viewed in their entirety, good and poor (Kurtzig 1986). The SEN child sees his classmates considered by school staff on the basis of many possible strengths, such as athletic, artistic, and social, in addition to academic. Yet the IEP focuses the attention the SEN child receives on his difficulties. The IEP by nature considers only areas where the child is lacking (Kurtzig 1986). Schools should create in the same great detail what the student does well, and how he or she can continue to excel (Kurtizig 1986, 447). This presents two detractions to the SEN childs full inclusion in the mainstream school. First, it causes the child himself to view himself as different and segregated from his classmates without special education needs. This causes the child to not experience full inclusion, and often leads to the child self-segregating or feeling it necessary to hide his learning difficulties from peers (Russell 2003). Second, it causes the school to separate the child, as the SEN child now has a specific document that causes teachers and others responsible for his educational experiences to view him as different or separate from his classmates (Russell 2003). Both these effects of the IEP lead to separation and segregation, the very opposite of full participation in the life of the school (DfES 2005). REFERENCES Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P., Burden, R. 2000. A Survey into Mainstream Teachers Attitudes Towards the Inclusion of Children with Special Educational Needs in the Ordinary School in one Local Education Authority. Educational Psychology, Jun2000, 20(2): 191-211. Bowers, T. and Wilkinson, D. 1998. The SEN Code of Practice: is it user-friendly? British Journal of Special Education, September 1998, 25(3):119-125. Byers, R. 2001. Editorial. British Journal of Special Education, Dec2001, 28(4): 158-159. Callias, M. 2001. Current and Proposed Special Educational Legislation. Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 6(1):24-30. Chuiang, A., Liao, W., Tai, W. 2005. An investigation of individual and contextual factors influencing training variables. Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 159-174. DfES 2001. Special Educational Needs Code of Practice. DfES Publications Centre. DfES 2002. Special Educational Needs (SEN): A guide for parents and carers. DfES Publications Centre. DfES 2004. Removing Barriers to Achievement: The Governments Strategy for SEN. DfES Publications Centre. DfES 2005. Every Child Matters. DfES Publications Centre. Available at http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk, accessed 22 December 2005. Goldthorpe, L. 2004. Every child matters: a legal perspective. Child Abuse Review, 13:115-136. Jones, S.A. 2004. Attitudes, inclusion and widening participation: a model of interactive teaching and leadership. Westminster Studies in Education, Oct2004, 27(2):157-173. Kurtizig, J. 1986. IEPs: Only Half the Picture. Journal of Learning Disabilities, Aug/Sep86, 19(7): 447. Lingard, T. 2001. Does the Code of Practice help secondary school SENCos to improve learning? British Journal of Special Education, Dec2001, 28(4): 187-190. Ofsted 1999. The SEN Code of Practice: Three Years On. London: Ofsted. Pearson, S. 2000. The relationship between school culture and IEPs. British Journal of Special Education, Sep2000, 27(3): 145-149. Potts, P. 1995. Whats the use of history? Understanding educational provision for disabled students and those who experience difficulties in learning. British Journal of Educational Studies, December 1995, 43(4):398-411. Russell, P. 2003. Access and Achievement or Social Exclusion? Are the Governments Policies Working for Disabled Children and Their Families? Children and Society, 17:215-225.

Employing Typical Features of the Gothic Tradition in Frankenstein :: Gothic Mary Shelley Frankenstein Essays

Employing Typical Features of the Gothic Tradition in Frankenstein One question, which occurs to most whom have read the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelly is, which path does the novel follow? Is it that of the Classic Gothic, or of the Modern Gothic genre? Some consider Frankenstein, the first true Modern Gothic novel. Others may disagree; many people consider it a pure combination of Modern and Classic Gothic elements. You may also point out that Frankenstein does not depend entirely on the Gothic genre. Mary Shelly’s upbringing was a struggle. Her mother (Mary Wollstonecraft) died only eight days after her birth. Her father ignored her after traveling Europe with Percy Shelly. In 1815 Mary gave birth prematurely to a daughter who died soon after. In 1816 she gave birth to a young boy, William. This was the same year, which the book Frankenstein was born, and in it’s early stages. Later that year one of Mary’ half sister committed suicide. Two month’s later Percy Shelly’s wife (Harriet) drowned herself in the serpentine, Hyde Park. Both Mary’s children died soon after the publication of Frankenstein. This may have influenced Mary Shelly’s plot in Frankenstein. She is so traumatized by all the death around her, that she tries to imagine what life would be like if resurrection was possible. If the dead could be brought back to life then surly everything would life would be perfect and there would be no fear of death. Then again without a fear of death, life is meaningless. Everything you do in your life is to satisfy or fulfill yourself in the next. â€Å" In a well organized mind, death is but the next adventure.† from Harry Potter & the Philosophers Stone, describing the need for death in society. This is reflected in the novel. Classic Gothic is a straightforward method of frightening the reader. Unlike modern, it's direct. The reader knows that there is a monster, or ghost there. The character may not always be aware of this. Classic Gothic usually contains the fright of monsters or things that shouldn't be. Frankenstein is not set in an old, dull spooky castle, like most Classic Gothic novels, although you could say that it has something quite close to this. Frankenstein's laboratory is a dark, gloomy, damp old room. Most Gothic novels are likely to be set around or in a castle. Nature is used a lot to create atmosphere. The dreary, icy fields of the Alps indicate the isolation of the two main characters. There is also a struggle between good and evil throughout the story: While my right hand grasped a pistol which was hidden in my bosom; Employing Typical Features of the Gothic Tradition in Frankenstein :: Gothic Mary Shelley Frankenstein Essays Employing Typical Features of the Gothic Tradition in Frankenstein One question, which occurs to most whom have read the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelly is, which path does the novel follow? Is it that of the Classic Gothic, or of the Modern Gothic genre? Some consider Frankenstein, the first true Modern Gothic novel. Others may disagree; many people consider it a pure combination of Modern and Classic Gothic elements. You may also point out that Frankenstein does not depend entirely on the Gothic genre. Mary Shelly’s upbringing was a struggle. Her mother (Mary Wollstonecraft) died only eight days after her birth. Her father ignored her after traveling Europe with Percy Shelly. In 1815 Mary gave birth prematurely to a daughter who died soon after. In 1816 she gave birth to a young boy, William. This was the same year, which the book Frankenstein was born, and in it’s early stages. Later that year one of Mary’ half sister committed suicide. Two month’s later Percy Shelly’s wife (Harriet) drowned herself in the serpentine, Hyde Park. Both Mary’s children died soon after the publication of Frankenstein. This may have influenced Mary Shelly’s plot in Frankenstein. She is so traumatized by all the death around her, that she tries to imagine what life would be like if resurrection was possible. If the dead could be brought back to life then surly everything would life would be perfect and there would be no fear of death. Then again without a fear of death, life is meaningless. Everything you do in your life is to satisfy or fulfill yourself in the next. â€Å" In a well organized mind, death is but the next adventure.† from Harry Potter & the Philosophers Stone, describing the need for death in society. This is reflected in the novel. Classic Gothic is a straightforward method of frightening the reader. Unlike modern, it's direct. The reader knows that there is a monster, or ghost there. The character may not always be aware of this. Classic Gothic usually contains the fright of monsters or things that shouldn't be. Frankenstein is not set in an old, dull spooky castle, like most Classic Gothic novels, although you could say that it has something quite close to this. Frankenstein's laboratory is a dark, gloomy, damp old room. Most Gothic novels are likely to be set around or in a castle. Nature is used a lot to create atmosphere. The dreary, icy fields of the Alps indicate the isolation of the two main characters. There is also a struggle between good and evil throughout the story: While my right hand grasped a pistol which was hidden in my bosom;

Two Case Studies for Police Officers Essay -- essays research papers

In life there are a lot of issues that involve social psychology. Being a police officer is a profession that encounters a lot of social psychology issues. One issue that all police officers have to encounter is prejudice. Police officers have to not be prejudiced against the citizens that they are trying to protect and serve the criminals that they must apprehend and also against each other. Two case studies that will be discussed are prejudice against female police officers by their male counterparts and racial prejudice against potential criminals. You’re a female cop. You arrive to your precinct fifteen minutes before you scheduled time to prepare yourself for the day, and you patiently wait for your partner to arrive. Fifteen minutes after your scheduled time, your partner shows up. Although he did not call ahead of time, your captain did not reprimand him for his actions. You get mad at this because, just last week when you did call and say you would be a little late, you still got yelled at by the same captain for being late and your job position was threatened.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As you’re out on patrol, you noticed a small brawl between two men starting to form in front of a corner store. You inform your partner about the possible fight and instruct him to pull over so you can see what’s going on. As the two of you get out of the car he says, â€Å"You should stay in the car there could be weapons involved and I don’t know if you can handle that.† You inform him that you have been working for the police force for over six years and have had to deal with situations far worse than this. He then tells you that this is a man's job and if he needs help he will call you for back up. Instead of fighting with him, you get back in the car even madder because of the comments he made about you. You sit in the car thinking if you were another male cop then it would not have been a problem, but since you are a female, there is a stereotype set upon you that you are weaker then he is and could not handle the situation. While thinking about this, you notice in the rearview mirror that your partner seems to be having some problems. As you get out of the car, you call for some backup just in case the situation gets out of hand. As you rush to his aid, he falls to the ground after being struck by one of the assailants. After a short fight between the two assa... ...he officer already has beliefs about this suspect he will treat the suspect a certain way. The way that the officer asks the suspect the questions, may lead the suspect to act in a different manner than he normally would have, and if the suspect acts the way that the police officer expected him too, because of his race, then the theory of self-fulfilling prophesy is very present. Also, the illusionary correlation, which is when a person over-estimates the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all related, (Brehm, Kassin, & Fein, 2005), may have come into play. Since the officer already used prejudice to associate the man with the crime, the fact that he is Hispanic and was nearby may make him a suspect, but there is no hard evidence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a police officer there are a lot of social psychological factors that come into play every day. You must constantly be helping people, not discriminating, unbiased in every way, and of course keeping an open mind at all times. All of the theories presented here should be taught to police officers, while they are in training, to help them to be able to handle these situations if any arise.

Data collection methods

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. Data Collection Techniques include the following: Personal Interviews Conducting personal interviews is probably the best method of data collection to gain first hand information. It is however, unsuitable in cases where there are many people to be interviewed and questioned.Questionnaires Questionnaires are good methods of data collection when there is a need for a articular class of people to be questioned. The researcher can prepare a questionnaire according to the data he requires and send it to the responders. Detailed observation Data can also most effectively be obtained with means of observational skills. The researcher can visit a place and take down details of all that he observes which is actually required for aiding in his research. Here, the resear cher has to make sure that what he is observing is real.Group Discussions Group discussions are good techniques where the researcher has to know what the people in a group think. He can come to a conclusion based on the group discussion hich may even involve good debate topics of research. Internet Data The Internet is an ocean of data, where you can get a substantial amount of information for research. However, researchers need to remember that they should depend on reliable sources on the web for accurate information. Books and Guides These data collection techniques are the most traditional ones that are still used in today's research.Unlike the Internet, it is sure that you will get good and accurate information from books and published guides. Using Experiments Sometimes, for obtaining the full understanding of the scenario, researchers have to onduct actual experiments on the field. Research experiments are usually carried out in fields such as science and manufacturing. This is the best method for gaining an in-depth understanding of the subject related to the research. There are many other methods of data collection which may help the researcher to draw statistical as well as conceptual conclusions.For obtaining accurate and dependable data, researchers are suggested to combine two or more of the above mentioned data collection techniques. http://www. buzzle. com/articles/data- collection-techniques. html Types of Data Data types are categorized into two types: Primary data and Secondary data. Primary This is data that is collected by the researcher himself. The data is gathered through questionnaires, interviews, observations etc. Secondary data This is data that is collected, compiled or written by other researchers eg. ooks, journals, newspapers internet etc. The following steps are used to collect data Review ; compile secondary source information Plan ; design data collection instruments To gather primary information Data collection Data analysis and interpretation Siddiqui, S. A. (2012) Key questionnaire design principles . Keep the questionnaire as short as possible. 2. Ask short, simple, and clearly worded questions. 3. Start with demographic questions to help respondents get started comfortably. 4. Use dichotomous (yes I no) and multiple choice questions. . Use open-ended questions cautiously. 6. Avoid using leading-questions. 7. Pretest a questionnaire on a small number of people. 8. Think about the way you intend to use the collected data when preparing the questionnaire. Which data collection method should the researcher use? Because of the biases inherent in any data-collection method, it is sometimes dvisable to use more than one method when collecting diagnostic data. The data from the different methods can be compared, and if consistent, it is likely the variables are being validly measured.Statistical inference permits us to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample. Sampling (i. e. selecting a sub-se t of a whole population) is often done for reasons of cost (it's less expensive to sample 1,000 television viewers than 100 million TV viewers) and practicality (e. g. performing a crash test on every automobile produced is impractical). The sampled population and the target population should be similar to one another. Types of sampling strategies: Probability: Why is it used? To generalize to population.Some examples: Simple random sample Stratified sample Cluster sample Systematic sample Non probability: When should it be used? Where generalizability not as important. Researcher wants to focus on â€Å"right cases. † Quota sample â€Å"Purposeful† sample â€Å"Convenience† or â€Å"opportunity' sample Sampling Plans A sampling plan is a method or procedure for specifying how a sample will be taken from a population. Three methods of sampling are: Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling. Random sampling is often the most common one u sed.Simple Random Sampling†¦ A simple random sample is a sample selected in such a way that every possible sample of the same size is equally likely to be chosen. Drawing three names from a hat containing all the names of the students in the class is an example of a simple random sample: any group of three names is as equally likely as picking any other group of three names. A stratified random sample is obtained by separating the population into mutually exclusive sets, or strata, and then drawing simple random samples from each stratum.Strata 1 : Gender : Male Female Strata 2 : Age ; 20 20-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 60 Strata 3 : Occupation professional clerical blue collar other We can enquire about the total population, make inferences within a stratum or make comparisons across strata Cluster Sampling A cluster sample is a simple random sample of groups or clusters of elements (vs. a simple random sample of individual objects). This method is useful when it is difficult or costl y to develop a complete list of the population members or when the population elements are widely dispersed geographically.Cluster sampling may increase sampling error due to similarities among cluster members. Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors†¦ Two major types of error can arise when a sample of observations is taken from a population: sampling error and nonsampling error. Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and the population that exist only because of the observations that happened to be selected for the sample. Reduce when sample size larger. Nonsampling errors are more serious and are due oms kes made in the acquisition ot data or due to the sample observations being selected improperly.Most likely caused be poor planning, sloppy work, etc. Errors in data acquisition†¦ †¦ arises from the recording of incorrect responses, due to: † incorrect easurements being taken because of faulty equipment, † mistakes made during transcription fr om primary sources, † inaccurate recording of data due to misinterpretation of terms, or † inaccurate responses to questions concerning sensitive issues. Nonresponse Error†¦ †¦ refers to error (or bias) introduced when responses are not obtained from some members of the sample, i. e. he sample observations that are collected may not be representative of the target population. The Response Rate (i. e. the proportion of all people selected who complete the survey) is a key survey parameter and helps in the nderstanding in the validity of the survey and sources of nonresponse error. The importance of ensuring accurate and appropriate data collection Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.Issues related to maintaining integrity of data collection: Most, Craddick, Crawford, Redican, Rhodes, Rukenbrod, and Laws (2003) describe ‘quality assurance' and ‘quality control' as two approaches that can preserve data integrity and ensure the scientific validity of study results. Each approach is implemented at different points in the research timeline . Whitney, Lind, Wahl, (1998) Quality assurance – activities that take place before data collection begins Quality control – activities that take place during and after data collection Quality Assurance Since quality assurance precedes data collection, its main focus is ‘prevention' (i. . , forestalling problems with data collection). Prevention is the most cost-effective activity to ensure the integrity of data collection. In the social/behavioral sciences where primary data collection involves human subjects, researchers are taught to ncorporate one or more secondary measures that can be used to verify the quality of information being collected from the human subject. For example, a researcher conducting a surve y might be interested in gaining a better insight into the occurrence of risky behaviors among young adults as well as the social conditions that increase the likelihood and frequency of these risky behaviors.Two main points to note: 1) cross-checks within the data collection process and 2) data quality being as much an observation-level issue as it is a complete data set issue. Thus, data quality should be addressed for each individual measurement, for ach individual observation, and for the entire data set. Quality control While quality control activities (detection/monitoring and action) occur during and after data collection, the details should be carefully documented in the procedures manual.A clearly defined communication structure is a necessary pre-condition for establishing monitoring systems. There should not be any uncertainty about the flow of information between principal investigators and staff members following the detection of errors in data collection. A poorly deve loped communication structure encourages lax monitoring and limits opportunities for detecting errors. Quality control also identities the required responses, or ‘actions' necessary to correct taulty data collection practices and also minimize future occurrences.These actions are less likely to occur if data collection procedures are vaguely written and the necessary steps to minimize recurrence are not implemented through feedback and education.